Historical records tell us that Emperor Akbar ruled India for nearly 48-49 years (1556–1605 CE). His son, Prince Salim (later Jahangir), was impatiently waiting to be declared the next emperor. By 1600 CE, Salim was about 31–32 years old, and tensions grew between him and Akbar. Influenced by orthodox religious factions, Salim clashed with Akbar’s inclusive policies. Akbar, favoring religious tolerance and his “Din-i-Ilahi” ideology, considered naming his grandson Khusrau (Salim's son) as successor instead.
This led to a deep rift—so much so that in 1591 CE, Salim even attempted to poison Akbar but failed. Salim was closely associated with hardline Sunni leaders like Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and Sheikh Bukhari (Murtaza Khan), who opposed Akbar's religious views and wanted Sharia law to dominate. They disliked Akbar's policies of equal treatment toward Hindus, Christians, and other non-Muslims. Salim, in their eyes, was the ruler who could fulfill their vision.
Nobles like Raja Man Singh and Khan-e-Khana Aziz Koka supported Khusrau’s claim to the throne—Raja Man Singh was Khusrau’s maternal uncle. Thus, the royal court split into two factions. At one point, under orthodox influence, Salim openly rebelled. Akbar was furious, and the family conflict intensified. Eventually, religious leaders and advisers mediated, persuading Akbar to declare Salim his heir. When Akbar died in October 1605 at age 63, Salim was swiftly declared emperor before his rivals could act.
As emperor, Jahangir had a complex personality. Initially not a devout Muslim, he showed shifting religious leanings—sometimes toward Christianity (wearing a gold cross), sometimes toward Hinduism. But under pressure from orthodox groups and driven by political ambition, he eventually embraced strict Islam. Jahangir was often drunk, yet also presented himself as a ruler of justice —famously hanging a bell outside his palace for public grievances.
However, he was also capable of cruelty. He celebrated a Christian boy’s conversion to Islam but forcibly tried to convert two young Armenian Christian boys, aged 14 and 11. When they refused, he had them flogged, circumcised, and forced to recite the Islamic creed. At times, he displayed admiration for Jesus Christ by hanging his images in his palace.
As ruler, Jahangir sidelined opponents and promoted loyalists. In Punjab, he appointed orthodox Muslim officials who showed hostility toward non-Muslim communities.
Situation at Amritsar
In the Sikh tradition, Guru Arjan Dev Ji is honored as the first martyr of the Sikh faith. From the time of Guru Nanak Dev Ji to Guru Ram Das Ji, the propagation of Sikhism followed a particular system, which Guru Arjan Dev Ji creatively reformed. He introduced improvements to the Masand system, appointing representatives in distant regions to spread Sikh teachings. Guru Arjan Dev Ji was the first Guru who focused not only on spiritual matters but also significantly improved social administration.
Earlier, offerings were collected only twice a year during major festivals when the congregation (sangat) gathered in Amritsar. Under Guru Arjan Dev Ji, the Masands were also tasked with collecting the dasvandh (One tenth of income) regularly, which greatly increased the income of the Sikh community. Due to better arrangements for langar (free community kitchen) and lodging, and the growing fame of Amritsar, more devotees began to gather there. Amritsar soon emerged as the central hub of Sikhism.
According to Ernest Trumpp, Guru Arjan Dev Ji was the first Guru to elevate Sikhism to new spiritual and organizational heights. He compiled and completed the Guru Granth Sahib, a monumental gift to the Sikh community. The prosperity and sanctity of the Guru's house attracted people from other religions—many Hindus and Muslims embraced Sikhism. This growing popularity began to concern the Mughal authorities.
Besides his religious contributions, Guru Arjan Dev Ji was involved in urban development, establishing towns like Sri Amritsar, Sri Kartarpur (in Jalandhar) and Sri Tarn Taran Sahib. He also commissioned a baoli (stepwell) in Lahore’s Dabbi Bazaar. These efforts further expanded the reach of Sikhism. Guru Ji encouraged agriculture among Sikhs and also promoted trade, particularly horse trading as far as Kabul and Kandahar, believing that this would not only boost the Sikh economy but also extend Sikh influence to distant regions.
Guru Arjan Dev Ji’s rising prominence caused envy in his elder brother, Prithi Chand, who was already resentful for not receiving the guruship. He initially took comfort in the belief that Guru Arjan had no children and that all possessions would eventually pass to him or his son, Meharban. However, when he learned of the birth of Guru Hargobind Ji, his hopes were shattered, and his jealousy intensified.
Prithi Chand made several failed attempts to harm young Hargobind Ji and eventually shifted his focus to undermining Guru Arjan Dev Ji. Due to his misdeeds, he lost credibility among the sangat and was forced to leave Amritsar, settling in his in-laws’ village, Hehar. There, he established his own center with one aim—to eliminate Guru Arjan Dev Ji. He sought support from local authorities and aligned himself with his old ally Sulhi Khan and the Mughal administration.
His opportunity came when Prince Khusrau rebelled against his father, Emperor Jahangir, and fled toward Lahore. Jahangir also reached Lahore in pursuit, creating a political climate that Prithi Chand and others sought to exploit against Guru Arjan Dev Ji.
Khusrou Rebellion
After Akbar's death, on Thursday, 24 October 1605 CE (20 Jumada al-Akhirah, 1014 Hijri), Jahangir ascended the throne in Agra. As soon as he took power, he introduced significant changes to the existing administrative system. He completely abolished the law of “Din-i-Ilahi” initiated by Akbar. Since he had made certain promises to those who helped him become the king, this was the time to fulfill those promises and, at the same time, to take revenge on his opponents. He promoted the ranks of many Mansabdars (officials) and drastically reduced the responsibilities of several others. Khusrau, who was displeased with the emperor, was placed under house arrest within the palace. This was the reason why hatred and rebellion began to grow in Khusrau’s heart.
On Saturday evening, 6 April 1606, Khusrau, under the pretense of paying respects at his grandfather Akbar’s tomb, escaped from the palace along with some companions. As the following day was Akbar’s birth anniversary, no one suspected anything unusual. Later, chaos broke out in the palace when it was discovered that Khusrau had fled. Instead of heading towards Bengal, Khusrau set out towards Punjab. Along the way, those who supported Khusrau joined him with troops and weapons. He traveled from Karnal through Sultanpur Lodhi and reached Lahore. It is believed that he intended to seize Lahore and thereby weaken the existing Mughal government. Some historians believe that Khusrau met Guru Arjan Dev Ji at Tarn Taran and received blessings; others say the meeting occurred at Goindwal.
On the other side, as soon as the news of Khusrau’s escape reached Emperor Jahangir, he ordered Sheikh Farid Bukhari (Murtaza Khan) to capture Khusrau as soon as possible. The emperor himself, accompanied by royal forces, set off in pursuit of Khusrau, traveling through Delhi and Karnal. Many historians consider this to be one of Jahangir's fastest campaigns. On 26 April 1606 CE, Jahangir also reached near Lahore via Sultanpur Lodhi. Upon hearing the news, Khusrau fled towards the Jhelum River, but in the end, he was captured on 27 April 1606 CE. Once done with Khusrau’s matter, Jahangir wished to march towards Kabul as soon as possible. For the emperor, the most critical task was to identify those who had helped Khusrau. In the Mughal era, rebellion against the state was considered a grave offense. Anyone who had helped Khusrau was given severe punishments, and those who supported the emperor were rewarded. Raju and Amba had also supported Khusrau’s rebellion; the emperor ordered that both of them be summoned and wrapped alive in the skins of animals
Jahangir, in his autobiography Tuzk-e-Jahangiri, states that on April 15, 1606, he was in Karnal when he learned that Sheikh Nizam of Thanesar had prayed for Khusrau. As punishment, he summoned the Sheikh and sent him on a pilgrimage to Mecca with government funds. From Agra to Lahore, Jahangir did not receive any information about Guru Arjan meeting with Khusrau. Notably, on April 17, 1606, Jahangir himself was in Goindwal, yet there was still no report about any such encounter. Even for a month afterward, he received no complaints or information regarding Guru Arjan.
It appears that the emperor’s stay in Lahore became a golden opportunity for Guru Arjan’s enemies to turn Jahangir against him by feeding him false accusations. Sikh historians have blamed Chandu Shah and Prithi Chand for this. Chandu, a long-standing enemy of the Guru’s household, held a grudge because Guru Arjan had refused to accept a marriage proposal between Chandu’s daughter and Guru Hargobind. Prithi Chand had also previously tried to attack Guru Arjan by persuading Sulhi Khan, with the help of the Lahore Subahdar, to march on the Guru with a military force. However, Sulhi died en route after falling into a brick kiln fire. This incident is even referenced in Guru Arjan’s hymns in the Guru Granth Sahib (“O Lord protect us From Sulhi”).
Undoubtedly, all Sikh sources hold Prithi Chand and Chandu responsible for Guru Arjan's martyrdom. However, contemporary sources like Tuzk-e-Jahangiri, Dabistan-i-Mazahib, a letter by an English priest Jerome, and a letter from Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi to Murtaza Khan (Governor of Lahore) cannot be ignored. These sources clearly suggest that the complaints by Chandu or Prithi Chand were merely pretexts—the real cause lay in what was already brewing in Jahangir’s own mind.
Jahangir, in his autobiography, records on 22nd Muharram, 1015 Hijri (May 20, 1606), something very serious and worthy of reflection.
"On the banks of the river Beas, in a village named Goindwal, there lives a Hindu named Arjan, who dresses and behaves like a saint or a holy man. He has gained so much influence that many simple and innocent Hindus have become his followers. Even many foolish Muslims have become his disciples. All of them proclaim him to be their Guru and place their faith in him. For three to four generations, he has kept this business running. Many times it has occurred to my mind that I should either put a permanent stop to this business of his, or bring him into the fold of Islamic law."
Before we proceed further, it is absolutely clear here that Jahangir himself was looking for an opportunity to eliminate this house of the Guru. This was because Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, who was preaching orthodox Islam in the city of Sirhind, was not succeeding in his mission due to the influence of Guru Arjan. On the contrary, Muslims were becoming devotees of the Guru's house—especially people like Allah Yar Khan, Sai Mian Mir, and others. That is why he too was extremely enraged with Guru Arjan and would provoke the emperor against Guru Sahib, using religion as a justification to take action against him. Later on, Jahangir writes.
"Eventually, when Khusrau passed through there, he met the Guru. He warmly welcomed Khusrau and, as a blessing, applied a saffron tilak (mark) on Khusrau’s forehead according to Hindu tradition. As soon as this news reached my ears, I understood his foolishness and ordered that he be arrested and brought before me, and that all his household, property, and possessions be confiscated. His family was to be handed over to Murtaza Khan. Along with this, it was also ordered that he be put to death."
Secondly, if one carefully examines the above statement, it becomes clear that Emperor Jahangir never mentioned any fine (penalty). No where in the entire Tuzk-e-Jahangiri is Chandu mentioned. Secondly, the accusation of applying a tilak (ceremonial mark) seems fabricated, because everyone knows that in the house of Guru Nanak, the tilak ritual is only mentioned during the ceremony of granting the Guruship. This story too seems to have been concocted merely to provoke the Emperor.
One translation of the Tuzk-e-Jahangiri has been done in English by “Rogers and Beveridge,” and another by “Wheeler and Thackson,” titled Jahangir Nama. However, there is also another translation available to us from the year 1864 (from Aligarh Muslim University), and it contains some differences. G.B. Singh and Dr. Ganda Singh provide information about this matter.:-
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( "Amar kardam ke ū rā (Guru Arjan) ḥāẓir sākh tand wa musākin wa munāzil wa farzandān-e ū rā Murtazā Khān 'anāyat namūdam wa asbāb wa amwāl-e ū rā ba-qaid zabt dar āwarda farmūdam ke ū rā ba-siyāsat wa yasa rasānand." )
"This means that (I order that he (Guru Arjan) be presented before me, and his house, children, and property be handed over to Murtaza Khan, he be imprisoned and punished according to the Yassa Syasat and Rasanand."
We now have contemporary sources that mention the accusations made by Jahangir against Guru Arjan Dev Ji and the punishment given to him. Two main accusations and corresponding punishments are clearly understood:
- The growing influence of Guru Ji’s teachings was drawing both Muslims and Hindus toward Sikhism, which hindered Islamic propagation in Punjab.
- Guru Ji’s act of blessing Prince Khusrau by applying a saffron tilak on his forehead. According to Dabistan-i-Mazahib, Guru Ji prayed for Khusrau’s success, which led the emperor to impose a heavy fine on Guru Arjan Dev Ji.
The first mention of the fine comes from Father Jerome, a Christian missionary, in a letter written on December 25, 1606, to the Governor of Goa. Later, the author of Dabistan also refers to this fine. However, it's notable that Jahangir himself makes no mention of any fine in his records.
Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi’s letter doesn’t directly mention his involvement in the incident but shows his satisfaction over Guru Ji’s execution. His tone gives insight into his mindset, suggesting at least an ideological role in the event.
Sikh historians have interpreted these events in various ways, but before analyzing their accounts, it's important to first consider the primary sources. Father Jerome’s letter discusses Khusrau’s rebellion, his arrest, and the martyrdom of Guru Arjan:
“When the emperor learned of the Guru’s support for Khusrau, he ordered Guru Ji’s arrest. Some local followers pleaded for his release, calling him their religious leader. Eventually, it was decided that Guru Ji could be released upon paying a fine of 100,000 cruzados. A wealthy man offered to guarantee the payment and took Guru Ji with him. But to his shock, even after combining Guru Ji’s home, possessions, and clothes, the required amount could not be collected. The man then began torturing Guru Ji to extract the money. Despite enduring severe torture, Guru Ji eventually passed away. The man later tried to flee or hide to save himself but was caught, executed, and his property was confiscated.”
The letter presents a few key points. First, the name of the wealthy man is not mentioned. Second, while Father Jerome was in Lahore at the time, but he never personally met Guru Arjan. Third, it mentions that the wealthy man was soon captured and killed. This suggests that his death occurred shortly after Guru Arjan's martyrdom. Guru Arjan was martyred on May 30, 1606, and this letter is dated December 25, so the wealthy man's death would have happened within two to four months after Guru Arjan’s.
If we assume that the wealthy man was Chandu, Sikh sources state that his death occurred later, on February 22, 1619. Furthermore, Father Jerome, in a letter discussed in the book Jehangir and the Jesuits, describes events in Lahore, but it also mentions that after Guru Arjan's death, Jehangir called Guru Arjan's brother, Prithi Chand, to grant him a government job. However, no other sources, including Persian ones, mention this detail.
The Dabistan-i-Mazahib, written by Mohsin Fani in 1644-45, states that Guru Arjan was imprisoned and fined by Emperor Jehangir, which he could not pay. As a result, Guru Arjan died while enduring harsh conditions in Lahore's hot sand. The writer of Dabistan even suggests that Guru Har Gobind's later arrest was linked to this fine.
The writer of Guru Bilas Patshahi 6 claims that Chandu Shah, a resident of Lahore, gave a bribe to Jehangir and then took Guru Arjan to his house, where he tortured and killed him, citing personal enmity. In History of Sikh Religion, S.Khajan Singh mentions that Guru Arjan helped Khusro with 5,000 rupees, and Khusro had promised to return the money, though no sources or references are provided.
Giani Gian Singh, in Panth Prakash, mentions that Chandu complained to the Emperor, claiming Guru Arjan had given Khusro 100,000 rupees and had anointed him with a royal seal. Giani Ji also writes in his Tawarikh Guru Khalsa that Guru Arjan gave Khusro 15,000 rupees. It seems that these are based on hearsay rather than concrete evidence.
While Jehangir mentions the large fine imposed on Guru Arjan in his writings, he does not discuss the fine in detail when compared to the cases of Raju and Amba (Khuso's supporters), where one was forgiven after paying a fine. According to Sikh historians, Chandu Shah tortured Guru Arjan, who, before his death, asked to bathe in the Ravi River. After he immersed himself, he never resurfaced.
The primary reason for Emperor Jahangir's anger towards Guru Arjan was the influence of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, a staunch Sunni Muslim and the greatest advocate of Sharia law in northern India. His focus was on expanding Islam and converting as many people as possible. However, Guru Arjan's teachings were so impactful that many Hindus and Muslims were embracing his philosophy of equality. This caused jealousy and resentment from Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and others like Murtaza Khan, who would often provoke the emperor by referencing religious texts.
When Murtaza Khan (Sheikh Farid Bukhari) was appointed as the governor and executed Guru Arjan, Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi wrote a letter to Murtaza Khan, which is found in the "Maktubat-e-Rambani." In this letter, Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi praises Sharia and its principles, extols Murtaza Khan for his dedication to upholding Sharia, and congratulates him for executing Guru Arjan, claiming that this would weaken the morale of the non-believers and raise the stature of Islam and Sharia. He ends the letter by wishing Allah's blessings upon Murtaza Khan.
Several Persian sources, such as the Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri, Jahangir Nama, and Waqiat-e-Jahangiri, are available concerning Emperor Jahangir. Their English translations are also accessible, except for those by Roger and Beveridge. In most versions, including those by historians like Dr. Balwant Singh Dhillon, Dr. Ganda Singh, Principal Satbir Singh, and J.S. Grewal, it is mentioned that Jahangir ordered Guru Arjan’s execution based on political and religious considerations. J.S. Grewal, referring to the 1864 manuscripts, notes that Jahangir’s decree also mentions capital punishment, which included property confiscation and house raids. However, there is no direct mention of the fine amount.
Yassa-Syasat
Yassa-Syasat refers to laws created by Genghis Khan, which helped unite his empire and enabled him to rule over a vast part of Asia. "Yassa" means law, and "Syasat" refers to punishment. Rasaanand refers to a type of punishment where the criminal suffers immense pain without shedding any drop of blood from body. Although Genghis Khan was illiterate and did not write any of these laws himself, all the laws were based on his thoughts and were strictly enforced. Later, these laws were documented and distributed in the shape of rolls, among the royal family members for safekeeping.
Under these laws, Jahangir sentenced Guru Arjan to punishment, leading to the confiscation of his property and belongings. If it had been a simple fine, Jahangir would have mentioned a monetary amount, as he did in the cases of Raju and Amba. As Guru Arjan's body became frail due to torture, and hot sand was poured on him, blisters formed naturally. According to Sikh historical accounts, Guru Arjan expressed a desire to bathe due to the unbearable pain, as his body was to be covered in cow’s skin. He then walked towards the Ravi River and was never seen again.
This raises the question: why did Guru Arjan, enduring such intense pain, walk into the river? However, it is believed that the authorities knew that immersing him in cold water after he had endured such torture would increase his suffering. Thus, his body was bound with rope and thrown into the river. Historical accounts from figures like Ratan Singh Bhangu , Satbir Singh and Hari Ram Gupta confirm this.
The historian Cunningham also supports the belief that this event happened quickly, and while Sikh historians maintain that Guru Arjan went to bathe in the Ravi River himself, the reality was likely that he was bound and thrown in to prevent him from escaping.
This martyrdom had a very deep impact on the Sikh community and became the cause of a major transformation in the Sikh world. Guru Arjan Dev Ji had already foreseen this entire incident, which is why before going to Lahore, he had warned Baba Budha Ji and Sahibzada Har Gobind Ji about the coming times and the necessary actions.
After completing 24 years, 7 months, and 1 day of Gurushipt, Guru Ji attained martyrdom in Lahore city on Jeth Sudi 4, Samvat 1663 (30th May 1606 CE). The place where he left his physical body is now marked by the Gurdwara Shaheed Ganj. Giani Gyan Singh Ji, in his Tawarikh Guru Khalsa, mentions this period as 24 years, 9 months, and 2 days.
